Examine the reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk from hazardous events.

Why do people live in hazardous areas?

• Disasters may be quite rare, so people may believe that the hazard will happen again or they are not sufficiently educated to know how likely it is that the hazard will happen again

• The benefits of the area may outweigh the risks. e.g fertile soils from volcanic ash and jobs from tourism

• There may be family heritage in the particular area and people will be reluctant to move away

• Religious importance

• Precious metals formed from the magma and lava underground

• Geothermal energy

Water Storage System Case Study: Kielder Water

Case Study of Kielder Water- a reservoir scheme in the UK

Where:

• Kielder water is located in Northumberland, close to the Scottish border
• It is located in the North East of England
• This included flooding the River North Tyne valley
• Few people lived in the valley, few families needed to be rehoused
• Most of the land was poor-quality farmland, remote from markets in the lower Tyne valley

When:

• Planned in the late 1960's
• Project started in 1975
• Opened in 1982

Why?:

• Kielder water was built in the era of the dominant chemical and steel industry, especially in Teessisde. 
• The chemical and steel industry created a high demand for water.
• The growing population created a high demand for water.
• The location was chosen as it would be able to serve more than one purpose, e.g physical and human attractions as well as water usage.
• The area was lacking in wildlife habitats therefore the prospect of the additional physical factors was a favourable aspect.

Opinions:

• There were many opposing opinions on the Kielder water project, many of them changing over the time it took the reservoir to be built.
• Some elite the money could have been used elsewhere e.g on social amenities and leaking pipes.
• Some were upset because of the loss of woodland.
• The need for the reservoir seemed strong in the sense of water usage but over time technology improved and the chemical and steel industry machinery used less water. The demand for water was not as high as people had anticipated. This is why some believe the project was a 'white elephant'
• The demand for water also dropped after the dam opened as he heavy industry began to decline due to cheap foreign competition.
• Others believe it is a 'golden goose'. A worthwhile investment and believe it will be beneficial of the future. The reservoir's ability to produce hydroelectric power has added an advantage.

Facts:

• The cost of the project was £167 million.
• The lake is 52 metres at its deepest point.
• It holds 200,000 litres
• The dam is over 1km long

In the process-

• A remote valley was lost.
• 70 houses were drowned.
• 8 historical sites were drowned.
• Salmon breeding grounds were lost.
• Half a million trees were cut down.

Uses of water:

• Kielder water supplies mostly the North-East of England. Water is released directly into the River North Tyne; from the River Tyne at Riding Mill it is pumped through a tunnel under the high land between river valleys. It is then fed into other east-flowing rivers, especially the River Tees.
• Kielder water supplements the River Derwent flow when the reservoir is low and fed into the pipe distribution system.
• The North-East now has one of the most reliable and sustainable water supplies in England.
• Kielder water supplies water to Yorkshire.
• This lead to the opening of a Samsung factory in Teessisde which lead to other companies to build in the area.
• The lake is a tourist attraction.

In this case few people were badly affected. The farmland was poor quality and few people lived in the valley. There are more benefits than disadvantages.

Factors Affecting the River Regime and Hydrographs

the amount + intensity of rain

too much rain will become overland flow and will reach the river at a fast pace

temperature

   temperature affects the form of precipitation e.g snow, takes longer to reach the river as it has to melt first

land use

 trees and plants will delay the rain reaching the ground soil. Rock, tarmac and concrete will speed up run off.

  steep and flat surfaces

             flat surfaces may cause water to sink in the soil

rock type

              impermeable rocks will speed up run off

              permeable rocks will allow the water to sink into the bedrock

dams and reservoirs

they regulate and even out discharges, so reduces the risk of downstream flooding

Define and classify different types of natural hazard (climatic, tectonic).

Hazard: an event resulting from environmental processes that threatens or actually causes damage and destruction to people their property and settlements.

Natural disaster: when a hazard causes serious damage and destruction.

If there were no people, there would be no hazards because hazards, in this context, means hazards to people

Geological	Climatic	Biological	Technological
Earthquakes	Storms	Fires	Nuclear explosion
Volcanic eruptions	Floods	Pests	Accidents
Landslides	Drought	Diseases	Pollution

Some hazards have human causes or are made more hazardous by human activity         

•  e.g Diseases- some diseases can be caused and spread by humans due to us polluting our environment. This results in dirty water and causes waterborne diseases such as cholera.

Hazards can sometimes combine to create events                                                                           

• e.g lava from a volcanic eruption can block a river which causes a flood or tsunamis associated with earthquakes

Features of a drainage basin, including watershed and channel network.

Drainage Basin: An open system (the amount of water varies) in a river

Catchment area: the area within the drainage basin

Watershed: the edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin. It marks the boundary between two drainage basins

Source: the beginning or start of a river e.g a spring or boggy area

Confluence: the point at which two rivers or streams join

Tributary: a stream or smaller river which joins a larger stream or river

Mouth: the point where the river comes to an end, usually when entering the sea.

Channel Network: the pattern of linked streams and rivers within a drainage basin

Drainage Density:

Drainage density = sum of length of all the rivers ÷ area of drainage basin

The drainage density is highest in the top half of the picture. This is shown through the number of rivers and the information about the rock type.

The Hydrological Cycle: characteristics, stores and transfers.

Hydrological cycle: the global movement of water between the air, land and sea 

The hydrological cycle is a closed system- there is a fixed amount of water on Earth that is constantly recycled

Stores:

• The atmosphere- water is held as water vapour or droplets in clouds
• The land- water is held in ice sheets, glaciers and snowfields; in lakes,rivers and reservoirs; in vegetation; and as groundwater in the soil or bedrock
• The sea (95% of the Earth’s water is stored in the sea)

Transfers:

• Evaporation- the beginning of the hydrological cycle, transfers water from the sea to the atmosphere. Evaporation by the heat of the sun. 
• Transpiration- The transfer of water vapour into the atmosphere by plants. Plants take up water from the soil and releases it as water vapour.
• Precipitation- The transfer of water in any form. Water condenses in the atmosphere and then transfers from the atmosphere to the land or sea surface as rain, hail or snow.
• Overland flow- Precipitation that runs off the ground surface into a stream, river or lake
• Infiltration- The transfer of water through the soil into the groundwater store.
• Through-flow- This takes place between groundwater store and the ground surface. The water moves through the soil until it reaches a steam,river or lake.
• Groundwater flow- The underground transfer of water to rivers,lakes and the sea.
• Percolation- The water moving downwards through the soil.
• Interception- Plants, trees or buildings collect the precipitation.

All of these transfers fit together to form a cycle which usually starts and ends in the sea.